MongoDB Interview Questions and Answers 2025

MongoDB is a NoSQL, document-oriented database that stores data in flexible, JSON-like documents instead of tables and rows. This allows for dynamic schemas, making it easier to store and query unstructured or semi-structured data compared to traditional relational databases.

MongoDB stores data as documents in collections. A document is a set of key-value pairs, similar to a JSON object, which can contain nested data and arrays. This structure allows for flexible and hierarchical data modeling.

A collection in MongoDB is a group of documents, similar to a table in SQL databases. However, unlike tables, collections do not enforce a fixed schema, so documents within a collection can have different fields and structures.

Schema-less design means that MongoDB collections do not require a predefined schema. Each document can have its own unique structure, allowing for easy changes to data models without downtime or complex migrations.

Indexes in MongoDB improve the speed of data retrieval operations by creating data structures that allow queries to efficiently locate documents. Without indexes, MongoDB must scan every document in a collection to find matches, which can be slow for large datasets.

MongoDB uses replica sets to provide redundancy and high availability. A replica set is a group of MongoDB servers that maintain the same data set. One node acts as the primary, while others are secondaries that replicate the primary's data and can take over if the primary fails.

Sharding is MongoDB's method for distributing data across multiple servers or clusters. It enables horizontal scaling by partitioning data into smaller, more manageable pieces called shards, allowing the database to handle large datasets and high throughput.

MongoDB provides different consistency models, including strong consistency for single-document operations and eventual consistency for distributed operations. Write and read concerns can be configured to balance consistency, availability, and performance.

The Aggregation Framework is a powerful feature in MongoDB that allows for advanced data processing and transformation using a pipeline of stages. It is used for tasks like filtering, grouping, sorting, and computing aggregate values from documents.

Embedded documents store related data within a single document, which is efficient for data that is frequently accessed together. References store relationships between documents in different collections, which is useful for large or complex data sets that require normalization.

The find() method is used for simple queries to retrieve documents from a collection based on specified criteria. The aggregate() method, on the other hand, is used for more complex data processing and transformation tasks, such as grouping, filtering, and calculating aggregate values using a pipeline of stages. Use find() for straightforward queries and aggregate() when you need to perform multi-step data manipulations.

MongoDB supports multi-document ACID transactions starting from version 4.0, allowing multiple operations to be executed atomically. However, transactions in MongoDB can have performance overhead and are generally less efficient than single-document operations. Unlike relational databases, MongoDB's transactions are best used sparingly and for scenarios where atomicity across multiple documents is essential.

Write concern specifies the level of acknowledgment requested from MongoDB for write operations, affecting data durability. Read concern determines the consistency and isolation properties of data read from the database. By configuring these concerns, you can balance between performance, consistency, and durability based on application requirements.

Capped collections are fixed-size collections that maintain insertion order and automatically overwrite the oldest documents when the allocated space is full. They are ideal for use cases like logging, caching, or storing recent activity feeds where only the most recent data is relevant.

Change streams allow applications to access real-time data changes (inserts, updates, deletes) in collections without polling. They are built on MongoDB's replication mechanism and are useful for building event-driven architectures, real-time analytics, and synchronizing data between systems.

Vertical scaling involves increasing the resources (CPU, RAM, storage) of a single server, while horizontal scaling adds more servers to distribute the load. MongoDB uses sharding for horizontal scaling, allowing data to be partitioned across multiple servers to handle large datasets and high throughput.

MongoDB supports several index types, including single field, compound, multikey (for arrays), text, geospatial, and hashed indexes. The choice depends on the query patterns: use single or compound indexes for common queries, text indexes for full-text search, geospatial for location-based queries, and hashed for sharding.

MongoDB provides tools like mongodump and mongorestore for logical backups, and filesystem snapshots for physical backups. In production, it's recommended to use replica sets for redundancy, schedule regular backups, and test restore procedures to ensure data safety and business continuity.

The _id field uniquely identifies each document within a collection and is automatically indexed. By default, MongoDB generates an ObjectId for this field, but you can assign a custom value if needed. However, the value must be unique within the collection to avoid duplicate key errors.

Best practices include embedding related data when access patterns favor it, using references for large or complex relationships, designing queries before modeling the schema, indexing fields used in queries, avoiding large documents, and planning for sharding if horizontal scaling is anticipated.

WiredTiger is the default storage engine in MongoDB since version 3.2, offering document-level concurrency control, compression, and improved performance over the legacy MMAPv1 engine. WiredTiger supports checkpointing, more granular locking, and efficient memory usage, making it suitable for high-throughput and large-scale deployments.

MongoDB uses the balancer process to automatically migrate chunks of data between shards to maintain an even data distribution. Challenges include balancing migration speed with cluster performance, avoiding hotspots, and ensuring consistency and minimal downtime during migrations.

MongoDB's query planner analyzes aggregation pipelines to reorder, combine, or eliminate stages for better performance. It pushes $match and $sort stages as early as possible, leverages indexes, and may rewrite expressions to minimize resource usage and improve execution speed.

Atlas Triggers are managed event-driven functions in MongoDB Atlas that execute server-side logic in response to database events (like inserts, updates, deletes) or on a schedule. They can automate workflows such as notifications, data validation, or integration with external services.

Field-level encryption in MongoDB allows specific fields in documents to be encrypted on the client side before being sent to the server. Only clients with the correct keys can decrypt the data, ensuring sensitive information remains protected even if the database is compromised.

Designing a multi-tenant schema involves deciding between shared, isolated, or hybrid models. Considerations include data isolation, indexing strategies, query performance, and scalability. Embedding tenant identifiers and using sharding or separate databases/collections are common approaches.

$lookup enables left outer joins between collections in aggregation pipelines. Limitations include potential performance issues with large datasets, memory usage, and lack of support for certain join types. Best practices include indexing join fields, limiting result set size, and denormalizing data when appropriate.

MongoDB uses a primary-secondary replication model. Write conflicts are resolved by accepting writes only on the primary. Write and read concerns, along with oplog application order, ensure consistency and durability across the replica set.

Read preferences determine from which replica set member queries are served (primary, secondary, nearest, etc.). Choosing the right preference can reduce latency by serving reads from geographically closer nodes, but may impact consistency if reading from secondaries with replication lag.

The oplog (operations log) is a capped collection that records all changes to the data on the primary. Secondaries replay these operations to stay in sync. The oplog also enables point-in-time recovery by allowing rollbacks or restores to a specific moment.

MongoDB provides tools like the Atlas monitoring dashboard, mongostat, mongotop, and server logs. Key metrics to monitor include operation throughput, replication lag, memory usage, index efficiency, and slow queries. Profiling and explain plans help identify bottlenecks.

When documents grow beyond their allocated space, MongoDB may need to move them, causing fragmentation. The padding factor reserves extra space for anticipated growth, but excessive padding wastes storage. Regularly running compact or repair operations can help manage fragmentation.

Change streams provide at-least-once delivery by default. To achieve exactly-once semantics, applications must track resume tokens and handle duplicate events idempotently. Network failures or application restarts may require resuming from the last processed event.

Embedding improves read performance and atomicity for related data but can lead to large documents and duplication. Referencing supports normalization and avoids duplication but requires additional queries or $lookup for joins, potentially impacting performance.

A TTL index automatically deletes documents after a specified period, based on a date field. It's useful for expiring sessions, logs, or temporary data. Limitations include background deletion (not immediate) and lack of support for compound indexes.

Rolling upgrades involve upgrading one node at a time to minimize downtime. In a replica set, secondaries are upgraded first, then the primary is stepped down and upgraded. In sharded clusters, config servers and mongos routers are also upgraded sequentially.

In write-heavy workloads, excessive or poorly chosen indexes can slow down writes due to index maintenance. Use only necessary indexes, prefer single-field or compound indexes that match query patterns, and monitor index usage to avoid overhead.

MongoDB supports distributed transactions across shards since version 4.2, using a two-phase commit protocol. While this ensures ACID compliance, it introduces coordination overhead and can impact performance and scalability. Use distributed transactions only when necessary.

The $facet stage allows multiple aggregation pipelines to run in parallel on the same input, producing multiple outputs in a single query. This is useful for dashboards or analytics that require different groupings, counts, or summaries from the same dataset.

Best practices include enabling authentication and authorization, using TLS/SSL for encrypted connections, restricting network access with firewalls, enabling auditing, using strong passwords or keyfiles, and keeping MongoDB and dependencies up to date.